Death is the state of terminated life Life is a characteristic that distinguishes objects that have self-sustaining biological processes ("alive," "living"), from those which do not —either because such functions have ceased (death), or else because they lack such functions and are classified as "inanimate.". The term "death" refers to both to the event of life's termination and to the state of lack of life. The true nature of the latter has for millennia been a central concern of the world's religious traditions In the 20th century study of comparative religion, major religious groups or "world religions" were divided up by adherence to a specific philosophy or theology. However, there is no consensus among researchers as to the best methodology for determining the religiosity profile of the world's population. A number of fundamental aspects and of philosophical enquiry Most academic subjects have a philosophy, for example the philosophy of science, the philosophy of mathematics, the philosophy of logic, the philosophy of law, and the philosophy of history. In addition, a range of academic subjects have emerged to deal with areas which would have historically been the subject of philosophy. These include. Many religions maintain faith in either some kind of afterlife The afterlife is the belief consciousness and/or mind of a being after biological death occurs. Major views on the afterlife derive from religion, esotericism and metaphysics. In many popular views, this continued existence often takes place in a spiritual or immaterial realm. Deceased persons are usually believed to go to a specific realm or or reincarnation Reincarnation, literally "to be made flesh again", is a doctrine or metaphysical belief that some essential part of a living being survives death to be reborn in a new body. This essential part is often referred to as the spirit or soul, the "higher" or "true" self, "divine spark", or "I". The effect of physical death on any possible mind There are many theories of the mind and its function. The earliest recorded works on the mind are by Zarathushtra, the Buddha, Plato, Aristotle, Adi Shankara and other ancient Greek, Indian and Islamic philosophers. Pre-scientific theories, based in theology, concentrated on the relationship between the mind and the soul, the supernatural, divine or soul In many religions and parts of philosophy, the soul is the spiritual or immaterial part of a human being, often regarded as immortal. It is usually thought to consist of one's consciousness and personality, and can be synonymous with the spirit, mind or self. In theology, the soul is often believed to live on after the person’s death, and some remains for many an open question. Contemporary Western science Science refers to any systematic knowledge-base or prescriptive practice that is capable of resulting in a prediction or predictable type of outcome. In this sense, science may refer to a highly skilled technique or practice regards organismic In biology, an organism is any living thing . In at least some form, all organisms are capable of response to stimuli, reproduction, growth and development, and maintenance of homeostasis as a stable whole. An organism may either be unicellular (single-celled) or be composed of, as in humans, many billions of cells grouped into specialized tissues death as final.

Animals Animals are a major group of mostly multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa. Their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later on in their life. Most animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and independently. Most animals are also almost without exception (see hydra Hydra is a genus of simple fresh-water animal possessing radial symmetry. Hydras are predatory animals belonging to the phylum Cnidaria and the class Hydrozoa. They can be found in most unpolluted freshwater ponds, lakes and streams in the temperate and tropical regions by gently sweeping a collecting net through weedy areas. They are usually a) die in due course from senescence Senescence is a process induced by evolution into an organism's genetic make up so that it may live to its healthiest until its reproductive age and die slowly and gradually thereafter. Senescence encompasses all of the biological processes of a living organism's approaching an advanced age . The word senescence is derived from the Latin word. Intervening phenomena which commonly bring death earlier include malnutrition Malnutrition is a general term for a medical condition caused by an improper or inadequate diet and nutrition. A number of different nutrition disorders may arise, depending on which nutrients are under or overabundant in the diet, predation In ecology, predation describes a biological interaction where a predator feeds on its prey, the organism that is attacked. Predators may or may not kill their prey prior to feeding on them, but the act of predation always results in the death of the prey. The other main category of consumption is detritivory, the consumption of dead organic, disease A disease or medical condition is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions, associated with specific symptoms and signs. It may be caused by external factors, such as invading organisms, or it may be caused by internal dysfunctions, such as autoimmune diseases, accidents An accident is a specific, identifiable, unexpected, unusual and unintended external action which occurs in a particular time and place, without apparent or deliberate cause but with marked effects. It implies a generally negative probabilistic outcome which may have been avoided or prevented had circumstances leading up to the accident been resulting in terminal physical injury Physical trauma refers to a physical injury, generally of a considerably severe degree. A trauma patient is someone who has suffered serious and life-threatening physical injury with the potential for secondary complications such as shock, respiratory failure and death, or, in extreme circumstances, grave ecosystem An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants, animals and micro-organisms in an area functioning together with all of the physical (abiotic) factors of the environment. An ecosystem is a unit of interdependent organisms which share the same habitat. Ecosystems usually form a number of food webs which show the interdependence of the disruption. Intentional Volition or will is the cognitive process by which an individual decides on and commits to a particular course of action. It is defined as purposive striving, and is one of the primary human psychological functions . Volitional processes can be applied consciously, and they can be automatized as habits over time. Most modern conceptions of human activity causing death includes suicide Suicide is the intentional taking of one's own life. Many dictionaries also note the metaphorical sense of "willful destruction of one's self-interest" (e.g., "political suicide"). Suicide may occur for a number of reasons, including depression, shame, guilt, desperation, physical pain, emotional pressure, anxiety, financial, homicide Homicide refers to the act of killing another human being. It can also describe a person who has committed such an act, though this use is rare in modern English. Homicide is not always an illegal act, and war A civil war is a dispute between parties within the same nation. War is not considered to be the same as occupation, murder, or genocide because of the reciprocal nature of the violent struggle, and the organized nature of the units involved. Roughly 150,000 people die each day across the globe.[1] Death in the natural world Nature, in the broadest sense, is equivalent to the natural world, physical world or material world. "Nature" refers to the phenomena of the physical world, and also to life in general. It ranges in scale from the subatomic to the cosmic can also occur as an indirect result of human activity: an increasing cause of species There are many definitions of what kind of unit a species is . A common definition is that of a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring, and separated from other such groups with which interbreeding does not (normally) happen. Other definitions may focus on similarity of DNA or morphology. Some species are depletion in recent times The Holocene extinction event is the widespread, ongoing mass extinction of species during the present Holocene epoch. The large number of extinctions span numerous families of plants and animals including mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles and arthropods; a sizeable fraction of these extinctions are occurring in the rainforests. This extinction has been destruction of ecological Ecology is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the distribution and abundance of organisms and their interactions with their environment. The environment of an organism includes all external factors, including abiotic ones such as climate and geology, and biotic factors, including members of the same species (conspecifics) and other species systems as a consequence of the widening spread of industrial Industrialization is the process of social and economic change whereby a human group is transformed from a pre-industrial society into an industrial one. It is a part of a wider modernization process, where social change and economic development are closely related with technological innovation, particularly with the development of large-scale technology Technology is a broad concept that deals with an animal species' usage and knowledge of tools and crafts, and how it affects an animal species' ability to control and adapt to its environment. Technology is a term with origins in the Greek "technologia", "τεχνολογία" — "techne", "τέχνη" and &.[2]

The chief concern of medical science Medicine is the art and science of healing. It encompasses a range of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness has been to postpone and avert death. Death in this context is now seen as less an event than a process: conditions once considered indicative of death are now reversible.[3] Where in the process a dividing line is drawn between life and death depends on factors beyond the presence or absence of vital signs Vital signs are measures of various physiological statistics often taken by health professionals in order to assess the most basic body functions. Vital signs are an essential part of a case presentation. In general, clinical death Clinical death is the popular term for cessation of blood circulation and breathing. It occurs when the heart stops beating in a regular rhythm, a condition called cardiac arrest. The term is also sometimes used in resuscitation research is neither necessary nor sufficient for a determination of legal death Legal death is a legal pronouncement by a qualified person that further medical care is not appropriate and that a patient should be considered dead under the law. The specific criteria used to pronounce legal death are variable and often depend on certain circumstances in order to pronounce a person legally dead. Controversy is often encountered. A patient with working heart The heart of a vertebrate is composed of cardiac muscle, an involuntary striated muscle tissue which is found only within this organ. The average human heart, beating at 72 beats per minute, will beat approximately 2.5 billion times during a lifetime . It weighs on average 250 g to 300 g in females and 300 g to 350 g in males and lungs The lung or pulmonary system is the essential respiration organ in air-breathing animals, including most tetrapods, a few fish and a few snails. In mammals and the more complex life forms, the two lungs are located in the chest on either side of the heart. Their principal function is to transport oxygen from the atmosphere into the bloodstream, determined to be brain dead Brain death is a legal definition of death that refers to the irreversible end of all brain activity due to total necrosis of the cerebral neurons following loss of blood flow and oxygenation. It should not be confused with a persistent vegetative state. The concept of brain death emerged in the 1960s, as the ability to resuscitate individuals and can be pronounced legally dead without clinical death occurring. Precise medical definition of death, in other words, becomes more problematic, paradoxically, as scientific knowledge Science refers to any systematic knowledge-base or prescriptive practice that is capable of resulting in a prediction or predictable type of outcome. In this sense, science may refer to a highly skilled technique or practice and technology Technology is a broad concept that deals with an animal species' usage and knowledge of tools and crafts, and how it affects an animal species' ability to control and adapt to its environment. Technology is a term with origins in the Greek "technologia", "τεχνολογία" — "techne", "τέχνη" and & advance.

Contents

Death in biology

Natural selection

Main articles: Competition (biology) Competition can be defined as an interaction between organisms or species, in which the fitness of one is lowered by the presence of another. Limited supply of at least one resource used by both is required. Competition both within and between species is an important topic in ecology, especially community ecology. Competition is one of many, natural selection Natural selection is the process by which heritable traits that make it more likely for an organism to survive and successfully reproduce become more common in a population over successive generations. It is a key mechanism of evolution, and extinction In biology and ecology, extinction is the death of a species or group of taxa. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of that species . Because a species' potential range may be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively. This difficulty leads to phenomena

Death is an important part of the process of natural selection Natural selection is the process by which heritable traits that make it more likely for an organism to survive and successfully reproduce become more common in a population over successive generations. It is a key mechanism of evolution. Organisms that are more adapted Adaptation is one of the basic phenomena of biology. It is the process whereby an organism becomes better suited to its habitat. Also, the term adaptation may refer to a characteristic which is especially important for an organism's survival. For example, the adaptation of horses' teeth to the grinding of grass, or their ability to run fast and to their current environment than others are less likely to die having produced fewer offspring, reducing their contribution to the gene pool In population genetics, a gene pool is the complete set of unique alleles in a species or population of succeeding generations. Their genes are thus eventually bred out of a population, leading to processes such as speciation Speciation is the evolutionary process by which new biological species arise. The biologist Orator F. Cook seems to have been the first to coin the term 'speciation' for the splitting of lineages or 'cladogenesis,' as opposed to 'anagenesis' or 'phyletic evolution' occurring within lineages. Whether genetic drift is a minor or major contributor to and extinction In biology and ecology, extinction is the death of a species or group of taxa. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of that species . Because a species' potential range may be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively. This difficulty leads to phenomena. It should be noted, however, that reproduction Reproduction is the biological process by which new individual organisms are produced. Reproduction is a fundamental feature of all known life; each individual organism exists as the result of reproduction. The known methods of reproduction are broadly grouped into two main types: sexual and asexual plays an equally important role in determining survival. For example, an organism that dies young but leaves many offspring will have a much greater Darwinian fitness Fitness is a central concept in evolutionary theory. It describes the capability of an individual of certain genotype to reproduce, and usually is equal to the proportion of the individual's genes in all the genes of the next generation. If differences in individual genotypes affect fitness, then the frequencies of the genotypes will change over than a long-lived organism which leaves only one.

Extinction

Dead as a Dodo The dodo was a flightless bird endemic to the Indian Ocean island of Mauritius. Related to pigeons and doves, it stood about a meter tall, weighing about 20 kilograms (44 lb), living on fruit and nesting on the ground: the bird that became a byword in English for species extinction [4]

Extinction In biology and ecology, extinction is the death of a species or group of taxa. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of that species . Because a species' potential range may be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively. This difficulty leads to phenomena is the cessation of existence of a species There are many definitions of what kind of unit a species is . A common definition is that of a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring, and separated from other such groups with which interbreeding does not (normally) happen. Other definitions may focus on similarity of DNA or morphology. Some species are or group of taxa, reducing biodiversity. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of that species (although the capacity to breed and recover may have been lost before this point). Because a species' potential range may be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively. This difficulty leads to phenomena such as Lazarus taxa, where a species presumed extinct abruptly "reappears" (typically in the fossil record) after a period of apparent absence. New species arise through the process of speciation, an aspect of evolution. New varieties of organisms arise and thrive when they are able to find and exploit an ecological niche — and species become extinct when they are no longer able to survive in changing conditions or against superior competition.

A decomposing mole has entered Earth's biogeochemical cycle

After death the remains of an organism become part of the biogeochemical cycle. Animals may be consumed by a predator or a scavenger. Organic material may then be further decomposed by detritivores, organisms which recycle detritus, returning it to the environment for reuse in the food chain. Examples of detritivores include earthworms, woodlice and dung beetles.

Microorganisms also play a vital role, raising the temperature of the decomposing matter as they break it down into yet simpler molecules. Not all materials need be decomposed fully, however. Coal, a fossil fuel formed over vast tracts of time in swamp ecosystems, is one example.

Evolution of aging

Main article: Evolution of aging

Enquiry into the evolution of aging aims to explain why so many living things and the vast majority of animals weaken and die with age (a notable exception being hydra, which may be biologically immortal). The evolutionary origin of senescence remains one of the fundamental puzzles of biology. Gerontology specializes in the science of human aging processes.

Defining death

Problems of definition

A flower, a skull and an hour-glass stand in for Life, Death and Time

One of the challenges in defining death is in distinguishing it from life. Death would seem to refer to either the moment at which life ends or the state that follows life. However, determining when death has occurred requires drawing precise conceptual boundaries between life and death. This is problematic however because there is little consensus over how to define life. Some have suggested defining life in terms of consciousness. When consciousness ceases, a living organism can be said to have died. One of the notable flaws in this approach is that there are many organisms which are alive but probably not conscious (for example, single-celled organisms). Another problem with this approach is in defining consciousness, which remains a mystery to modern scientists, psychologists and philosophers. This general problem of defining death applies to the particular challenge of defining death in the context of medicine.

Historically, attempts to define the exact moment of a human's death have been problematic. Death was once defined as the cessation of heartbeat (cardiac arrest) and of breathing, but the development of CPR and prompt defibrillation have rendered that definition inadequate because breathing and heartbeat can sometimes be restarted. Events which were causally linked to death in the past no longer kill in all circumstances; without a functioning heart or lungs, life can sometimes be sustained with a combination of life support devices, organ transplants and artificial pacemakers.

Today, where a definition of the moment of death is required, doctors and coroners usually turn to "brain death" or "biological death" to define a person as being clinically dead; people are considered dead when the electrical activity in their brain ceases. It is presumed that an end of electrical activity indicates the end of consciousness. However, suspension of consciousness must be permanent, and not transient, as occurs during certain sleep stages, and especially a coma. In the case of sleep, EEGs can easily tell the difference.

The possession of brain activities, or ability to resume brain activity, is a necessary condition to legal personhood in the United States. "It appears that once brain death has been determined … no criminal or civil liability will result from disconnecting the life-support devices." (Dority v. Superior Court of San Bernardino County, 193 Cal.Rptr. 288, 291 (1983))

Many have challenged the idea that brain death is equivalent to the cessation of consciousness. Critics point out that much of human consciousness is embodied in numerous body parts and that the end of electrical impulses in the brain does not necessarily indicate that this embodied consciousness has also ceased. Given this possibility, brain death does not necessitate the end of consciousness, and thus brain dead people may still be alive. Furthermore, some have argued, even if brain death does mean the end of consciousness for a human being, the whole notion that cessation of consciousness indicates death is problematic. Critics note the existence of many single-celled organisms such as bacteria that we consider to be alive but which many doubt are conscious. If life does not require consciousness, defining death in terms of "brain death" is a dubious procedure, even if the brain is the seat of consciousness. Thus while legal concerns surrounding death force us to develop a working definition of death, it is not at all clear that the current American definition, according to brain death, coincides at all with a definition that can be reasonably endorsed.[who?]

Those people maintaining that only the neo-cortex of the brain is necessary for consciousness sometimes argue that only electrical activity there should be considered when defining death. Eventually it is possible that the criterion for death will be the permanent and irreversible loss of cognitive function, as evidenced by the death of the cerebral cortex. All hope of recovering human thought and personality is then gone given current and foreseeable medical technology. However, at present, in most places the more conservative definition of death — irreversible cessation of electrical activity in the whole brain, as opposed to just in the neo-cortex — has been adopted (for example the Uniform Determination Of Death Act in the United States). In 2005, the Terri Schiavo case brought the question of brain death and artificial sustenance to the front of American politics.

Even by whole-brain criteria, the determination of brain death can be complicated. EEGs can detect spurious electrical impulses, while certain drugs, hypoglycemia, hypoxia, or hypothermia can suppress or even stop brain activity on a temporary basis. Because of this, hospitals have protocols for determining brain death involving EEGs at widely separated intervals under defined conditions.

Misdiagnosed death

There are many anecdotal references to people being declared dead by physicians and then 'coming back to life', sometimes days later in their own coffin, or when embalming procedures are just about to begin. Owing to significant scientific advancements in the Victorian era, some people in Britain became obsessively worried about living after being declared dead.[5]

In cases of electric shock, CPR for an hour or longer can allow stunned nerves to recover, allowing an apparently dead person to survive. People found unconscious under icy water may survive if their faces are kept continuously cold until they arrive at an emergency room.[6] This "diving response", in which metabolic activity and oxygen requirements are minimal, is something humans share with cetaceans called the mammalian diving reflex.[6]

As medical technologies advance, ideas about when death occurs may have to be re-evaluated in light of the ability to restore a person to vitality after longer periods of apparent death (as happened when CPR and defibrillation showed that cessation of heartbeat is inadequate as a decisive indicator of death). The lack of electrical brain activity may not be enough to consider someone scientifically dead. Therefore, the concept of information theoretical death has been suggested as a better means of defining when true death actually occurs, though the concept has few practical applications outside of the field of cryonics.

There have been some scientific attempts to bring dead organisms back to life, but with limited success.[7] In science fiction scenarios where such technology is readily available, real death is distinguished from reversible death.

Death and the law

See also: Legal death

By law, a person is dead if a Statement of Death or Death Certificate is approved by a licensed medical practitioner. Various legal consequences follow death, including the removal from the person of what in legal terminology is called personhood.

Causes of death in humans

See also: List of causes of death by rate and Leading preventable causes of death The body of Pope John Paul II lying in state in St. Peter's Basilica, Rome, 2005

Death can be caused by disease, suffocation/asphyxiation or prolonged lack of oxygen to the brain, or physical trauma as a result of an accident ("unintentional circumstance"), homicide ("intentional act by someone else"), or suicide ("intentional act against one's self").[8]

The leading cause of death in developing countries is infectious disease. The leading causes of death in developed countries are atherosclerosis (heart disease and stroke), cancer, and other diseases related to obesity and aging. These conditions cause loss of homeostasis, leading to cardiac arrest, causing loss of oxygen and nutrient supply, causing irreversible deterioration of the brain and other tissues. Of the roughly 150,000 people who die each day across the globe, about two thirds — 100,000 per day — die of age-related causes.[1] In industrialized nations, the proportion is much higher, reaching 90%.[1] With improved medical capability, dying has become a condition to be managed. Home deaths, once normal, are now rare in the developed world.

In developing nations, inferior sanitary conditions and lack of access to modern medical technology makes death from infectious diseases more common than in developed countries. One such disease is tuberculosis, a bacterial disease which killed 1.7 million people in 2004.[9] Malaria causes about 400–900 million cases of fever and approximately one to three million deaths annually.[10] AIDS death toll in Africa may reach 90-100 million by 2025.[11][12]

According to Jean Ziegler, who was the United Nations Special reporter on the Right to Food from 2000 to March 2008; mortality due to malnutrition accounted for 58% of the total mortality rate in 2006. Ziegler says worldwide approximately 62 million people died from all causes and of those deaths more than 36 million died of hunger or diseases due to deficiencies in micronutrients."[13]

Tobacco smoking killed 100 million people worldwide in the 20th century and could kill 1 billion people around the world in the 21st century, the WHO Report warned.[14][15]

Many leading developed world causes of death can be postponed by diet and physical activity, but the accelerating incidence of disease with age still imposes limits on human longevity. The evolutionary cause of aging is, at best, only just beginning to be understood. It has been suggested that direct intervention in the aging process may now be the most effective intervention against major causes of death.[16]

Symptoms of death

Signs of death, or strong indications that a person is no longer alive are:

Autopsy

Rembrandt turns an autopsy into a masterpiece: The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp

An autopsy, also known as a postmortem examination or an obduction, is a medical procedure that consists of a thorough examination of a human corpse to determine the cause and manner of a person's death and to evaluate any disease or injury that may be present. It is usually performed by a specialized medical doctor called a pathologist.

Autopsies are either performed for legal or medical purposes. A forensic autopsy is carried out when the cause of death may be a criminal matter, while a clinical or academic autopsy is performed to find the medical cause of death and is used in cases of unknown or uncertain death, or for research purposes. Autopsies can be further classified into cases where external examination suffices, and those where the body is dissected and an internal examination is conducted. Permission from next of kin may be required for internal autopsy in some cases. Once an internal autopsy is complete the body is generally reconstituted by sewing it back together. Autopsy is important in a medical environment and may shed light on mistakes and help improve practices.

A "necropsy" is an older term for a postmortem examination, unregulated, and not always a medical procedure. In modern times the term is more often used in the postmortem examination of the corpses of animals.

Life extension

Main article: Life extension

Life extension refers to an increase in maximum or average lifespan, especially in humans, by slowing down or reversing the processes of aging. Average lifespan is determined by vulnerability to accidents and age or lifestyle-related afflictions such as cancer or cardiovascular disease. Extension of average lifespan can be achieved by good diet, exercise and avoidance of hazards such as smoking. Maximum lifespan is determined by the rate of aging for a species inherent in its genes. Currently, the only widely recognized method of extending maximum lifespan is calorie restriction. Theoretically, extension of maximum lifespan can be achieved by reducing the rate of aging damage, by periodic replacement of damaged tissues, or by molecular repair or rejuvenation of deteriorated cells and tissues.

Researchers of life extension are a subclass of biogerontologists known as "biomedical gerontologists". They try to understand the nature of aging and they develop treatments to reverse aging processes or to at least slow them down, for the improvement of health and the maintenance of youthful vigor at every stage of life. Those who take advantage of life extension findings and seek to apply them upon themselves are called "life extensionists" or "longevists". The primary life extension strategy currently is to apply available anti-aging methods in the hope of living long enough to benefit from a complete cure to aging once it is developed, which given the rapidly advancing state of biogenetic and general medical technology, could conceivably occur within the lifetimes of people living today.

Death in culture

Main article: Death in culture Death haunts even the beautiful: an early 20th century artist says, "All is Vanity"

Death is the center of many traditions and organizations, and is a feature of every culture around the world. Much of this revolves around the care of the dead, as well as the afterlife and the disposal of bodies upon the onset of death. The disposal of human corpses does, in general, begin with the last offices before significant time has passed, and ritualistic ceremonies often occur, most commonly interment or cremation. This is not a unified practice, however, as in Tibet for instance the body is given a sky burial and left on a mountain top. Mummification or embalming is also prevalent in some cultures, to retard the rate of decay.

Such rituals are accompanied by grief and mourning in almost all cases, and this is not limited to human loss, but extends to the loss of an animal. Legal aspects of death are also part of many cultures, particularly the settlement of the deceased estate and the issues of inheritance and in some countries, inheritance taxation.

Capital punishment is also a divisive aspect of death in culture. In most places that practice capital punishment today, the death penalty is reserved as punishment for premeditated murder, espionage, treason, or as part of military justice. In some countries, sexual crimes, such as adultery and sodomy, carry the death penalty, as do religious crimes such as apostasy, the formal renunciation of one's religion. In many retentionist countries, drug trafficking is also a capital offense. In China human trafficking and serious cases of corruption are also punished by the death penalty. In militaries around the world courts-martial have imposed death sentences for offenses such as cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny.[17]

Death in warfare and in suicide attack also have cultural links, and the ideas of dulce et decorum est pro patria mori, mutiny punishable by death, grieving relatives of dead soldiers and death notification are embedded in many cultures. Recently in the western world, with the supposed increase in terrorism following the September 11 attacks, but also further back in time with irish suicide bombers and terrorism in Northern Ireland, kamikaze missions in World War II and suicide missions in a host of other conflicts in history, death for a cause by way of suicide attack, and martyrdom have had significant cultural impacts.

Suicide in general, and particularly euthanasia are also points of cultural debate. Both acts are understood very differently in contrasting cultures. In Japan, for example, ending a life with honor by seppuku was considered a desirable death, whereas according to traditional Christian and Islamic cultures, suicide is viewed as a sin. Death is personified in many cultures, with such symbolic representations as the Grim Reaper, Azrael and Father Time.

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c Aubrey D.N.J, de Grey (2007). "Life Span Extension Research and Public Debate: Societal Considerations" (PDF). Studies in Ethics, Law, and Technology 1 (1, Article 5). doi:10.2202/1941-6008.1011. http://www.mfoundation.org/files/sens/ENHANCE-PP.pdf. Retrieved on March 20, 2009.
  2. ^ Human Activities Cause of Current Extinction Crisis, accessed 7 April 2009
  3. ^ Crippen, David. "Brain Failure and Brain Death". ACS Surgery Online, Critical Care, April 2005. Archived from the original on 24 June 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060624132446/http://www.acssurgery.com/abstracts/acs/acs0812.htm. Retrieved on 2007-01-09.
  4. ^ Diamond, Jared (1999). "Up to the Starting Line". Guns, Germs, and Steel. W. W. Norton. pp. 43–44. ISBN 0-393-31755-2.
  5. ^ As reflected from at least one article of literature by authors like Edgar Allan Poe, where subjects were buried alive.
  6. ^ a b Limmer, D. et al. (2006). Emergency care (AHA update, Ed. 10e). Prentice Hall.
  7. ^ Blood Swapping Reanimates Dead Dogs
  8. ^ WHO: 1.6 million die in violence annually
  9. ^ World Health Organization (WHO). Tuberculosis Fact sheet N°104 - Global and regional incidence. March 2006, Retrieved on 6 October 2006.
  10. ^ USAID’s Malaria Programs
  11. ^ Aids could kill 90 million Africans, says UN
  12. ^ AIDS Toll May Reach 100 Million in Africa, Washington Post
  13. ^ Jean Ziegler, L'Empire de la honte, Fayard, 2007 ISBN 978-2-253-12115-2 p.130.
  14. ^ Tobacco Could Kill One Billion By 2100, WHO Report Warns
  15. ^ Tobacco could kill more than 1 billion this century: WHO
  16. ^ SJ Olshanksy et al. (2006). "Longevity dividend: What should we be doing to prepare for the unprecedented aging of humanity?". The Scientist 20: 28–36. http://www.grg.org/resources/TheScientist.htm. Retrieved on 2007-03-31.
  17. ^ "Shot at Dawn, campaign for pardons for British and Commonwealth soldiers executed in World War I". Shot at Dawn Pardons Campaign. http://www.shotatdawn.org.uk/. Retrieved on 2006-07-20.

Additional references

External links

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Preceded by Old age Stages of human development Death Succeeded by Decomposition
Human Development: Biological • Psychological
Pre- and perinatal
Biological Prenatal development
Psychological Pre- and perinatal psychology
Infancy
Biological Infant
Psychological Infant and child psychology
Childhood
Biological Child development · Child development stages · Toddler
Psychological Preadolescence
Adolescence
Biological Puberty
Psychological Youth development
Young adulthood
Psychological Young adult (psychology)
Middle adulthood
Biological Middle age
Maturity
Biological Ageing · Senescence
Psychological Old age
Legal and general definitions Minor (law) · Infancy · Child · Childhood · Adolescence · Age of majority · Adult
Theorists-theories John Bowlby-attachment · Urie Bronfenbrenner-ecological systems · Erik Erikson-psychosocial · Sigmund Freud-psychosexual · Lawrence Kohlberg-moral · Jean Piaget-cognitive · Lev Vygotsky-cultural-historical
Death and related topics
In medicine Autopsy · Brain death · Clinical death · Euthanasia · Lazarus Syndrome · Persistent vegetative state · Terminal illness
Lists Causes of death by rate · Preventable causes of death · People by cause of death · List of expressions related to death · Notable deaths in 2007 · Notable deaths in 2008
Mortality Immortality · Perinatal mortality · Infant mortality · Child mortality · Legal death · Maternal death · Mortality rate
After death Body: Burial · Cremation · Cryonics · Promession · Resomation · Mummification · Decomposition · Death certificate · Funeral · Grief · Mourning · Category:Customs · Afterlife · Intermediate state
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'Death' News
Police seek information in Sunday's shooting death - KXRM
news.google.com
Police seek information in Sunday's shooting death

KXRM

AP Video Shortly after midnight on Sunday, the Colorado Springs Police Department (CSPD) received multiple calls of a fight occurring inside or just outside ...



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Google News Search: Death,
Mon Jul 27 14:15:53 2009
'Death' Images
nmh death metal jpg
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nmh death metal jpg
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Death Metal

Yahoo Images Search: Death,
Mon Jul 27 06:06:37 2009
'Death' Blogs
Gwinnett Woman Accused Of Stabbing Husband To Death - News Story ...
wsbtv.com
Gwinnett Woman Accused Of Stabbing Husband To Death - News Story ...

unknown

Mon, 27 Jul 2009 19:25:53 GM

Lawrenceville, Ga. -- The woman initially told officers that the couple were the victims of a home-invasion robbery and that she had been sexually assaulted by the robbers, police said. Monday, July 27, 2009.

Google Blogs Search: Death,
Tue Jul 28 14:37:14 2009
'Death' Answers
What causes the death rattle in elderly before they pass away?
Q. I've been working as a CNA for the past three years, and I noticed that people tend to get this rattle in their chest as they get close to death. My best guess is its fluid build up from heart failure, but really I have no clue. Anyone know why?
Asked by dolly - Mon Oct 1 20:57:52 2007 - - 5 Answers - 0 Comments

A. It's generally a build-up of fluid and/or collapse of supporting tissue. Not able to adequately clear or cough.
Answered by But Inside I'm Screaming - Mon Oct 1 23:10:42 2007

Yahoo Answers Search: Death,
Wed Jul 15 03:40:32 2009
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